Read twice and referred to the Committee on Finance.
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Historically, many U.S. policymakers have regarded the Western Hemisphere as a U.S. sphere of influence, vital to U.S. interests, or both. U.S. engagement in the region has shifted over time, responding to changes in the hemisphere and in U.S. objectives. Following the end of the Cold War, the U.S. approach to the Wes…
On April 24, 2025, as part of a broader national effort to secure reliable supplies for critical minerals, the Trump Administration issued Executive Order (E.O.) 14285, “Unleashing America’s Offshore Critical Minerals and Resources,” making it a policy of the United States to advance U.S. leadership in seabed mineral…
Rare earth elements (REEs) have catalytic, magnetic, electrical, and luminescent properties vital for civilian and defense purposes. REEs may include 17 elements—scandium (atomic symbol Sc), yttrium (Y), and the 15 lanthanides—although some classifications exclude Sc. REEs typically are found together in nature (Sc is…
According to a 2008 National Research Council report, a critical mineral is a nonfuel mineral that is essential for use and faces considerable supply chain vulnerabilities. Demand for these components in the agriculture, defense, electronics, energy, manufacturing, refining and transportation sectors is projected to g…
Bolivia is a centrally located, landlocked country in South America. The country experienced multiple military coups and periods of authoritarian rule through the 19th and 20th centuries, most recently reestablishing democratic civilian rule in 1982. Despite the country’s significant mineral and hydrocarbon resources,…
This report examines the constitutional powers of Congress and the President over foreign trade agreements, the respective roles the legislative and executive branches have played in selected trade agreements in the 2020s, and legal debates concerning the extent to which the executive branch may enter into or withdraw…
Amid growing global demand for critical minerals, Congress has been deliberating how to secure U.S. access to such goods. The United States has become highly reliant on foreign imports of critical minerals, and Members of Congress have expressed interest in both encouraging U.S. production capacity, through measures s…
The Pacific Ocean’s seafloor contains mineral-rich deposits of cobalt, copper, manganese, nickel, rare earth elements, zinc, and other minerals that may help meet supply demands for energy transition technologies. These minerals may occur in potato-shaped rocks called polymetallic nodules (PMNs); seafloor massive sulf…
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